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materials and methods
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The nuclear translocation of p65 was examined by immunocytochemistry as described previously [30,>>31<<]. Briefly, cells were plated on SuperFrost glass slides for adherence and treated the next day with Curcumin.
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Relative expression values with standard errors were obtained using Qgene software [>>33<<] and statistical comparisons (unpaired two-tailed t-test) were performed using Prism (GraphPad) software.
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Micorarray gene expression dataset GSE7553 [>>35<<] were obtained form Gene Expression Omnibus http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/geo/. The expression values published by the authors were used without further processing.
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results
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In contrast to the here presented data on melanoma cells, the human breast cancer cells MDA-MB-231 cells, who respond very well to Curcumin, undergo early and late apoptosis (published by us previously [>>3<<].
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The direct correlation between NFκB and CXCL1 and -2 expressions implies that the two cytokines are NFκB targets [>>4<<]. CXCL1 is also present in several metastasis signatures [26,36,37]. We wished to understand whether CXCL1 may play a role in melanoma so we analyzed published microarray gene expression data [35]. CXCL1 is strongly and highly
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CXCL1 is also present in several metastasis signatures [>>26<<,36,37]. We wished to understand whether CXCL1 may play a role in melanoma so we analyzed published microarray gene expression data [35].
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CXCL1 is also present in several metastasis signatures [26,>>36<<,37]. We wished to understand whether CXCL1 may play a role in melanoma so we analyzed published microarray gene expression data [35].
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CXCL1 is also present in several metastasis signatures [26,36,>>37<<]. We wished to understand whether CXCL1 may play a role in melanoma so we analyzed published microarray gene expression data [35].
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We wished to understand whether CXCL1 may play a role in melanoma so we analyzed published microarray gene expression data [>>35<<]. CXCL1 is strongly and highly differentially expressed in primary and metastatic melanoma and in other skin cancers (figures 3a and 3b). During the progression from normal human melanocytes (n = 1) over melanoma in situ (n = 2) and
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discussion
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We have recently shown that Curcumin inhibits the formation but not the growth of metastases in an in vivo model of immunodeficient mice [>>3<<]. However, the anti-metastatic activity of the natural polyphenol cannot be completely ascribed to its pro-apoptotic activity. Curcumin apparently also influences a network of pro-metastatic players that depend on NFκB and in this context
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players that depend on NFκB and in this context the inflammatory cytokines CXCL1 and -2 (GROα and β) appear to play a crucial role inasmuch as they influence the expression of several other pro-metastatic genes including CXCR4 [>>4<<]. The importance of CXCL1 in the process of metastasis has recently been reported and is also reflected by its presence in several metastasis signatures [26,37].
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The importance of CXCL1 in the process of metastasis has recently been reported and is also reflected by its presence in several metastasis signatures [>>26<<,37]. The lung metastasis signature presented by Minn and coworkers has been developed using a CXCL1 and -2 positive cell line, yet in human breast cancers, CXCL1 and -2 are not expressed at considerable levels, and in only a small
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The importance of CXCL1 in the process of metastasis has recently been reported and is also reflected by its presence in several metastasis signatures [26,>>37<<]. The lung metastasis signature presented by Minn and coworkers has been developed using a CXCL1 and -2 positive cell line, yet in human breast cancers, CXCL1 and -2 are not expressed at considerable levels, and in only a small minority
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metastasis signature presented by Minn and coworkers has been developed using a CXCL1 and -2 positive cell line, yet in human breast cancers, CXCL1 and -2 are not expressed at considerable levels, and in only a small minority of cases [>>37<<].
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variably) expressed in human primary and metastatic melanomas as well as other skin cancers and several other groups have underlined the importance of CXCL1 in melanoma progression pointing to its tumorigenic and angiogenic effects [>>38<<] and to tumor-host interactions [39]. With this in mind we set out to test the potential of Curcumin as chemopreventive drug for melanoma.
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and metastatic melanomas as well as other skin cancers and several other groups have underlined the importance of CXCL1 in melanoma progression pointing to its tumorigenic and angiogenic effects [38] and to tumor-host interactions [>>39<<]. With this in mind we set out to test the potential of Curcumin as chemopreventive drug for melanoma.
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Our results demonstrate that the highly metastatic melanoma cell line M14 is, however, relatively resistant to the effects of Curcumin, in particular if compared to what we have observed for breast cancer cells [>>3<<,4]. Even after 48 hours only early apoptosis can be observed and very few cells are irreversibly committed to cell death.
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Our results demonstrate that the highly metastatic melanoma cell line M14 is, however, relatively resistant to the effects of Curcumin, in particular if compared to what we have observed for breast cancer cells [3,>>4<<]. Even after 48 hours only early apoptosis can be observed and very few cells are irreversibly committed to cell death.
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To our best knowledge, this is the first description of resistance to Curcumin, a drug that has itself been reported to be able to overcome drug resistance to classical chemotherapy [>>40<<-43]. Drug resistance is in most cases a result of over-expression of cellular transporters that are able to extrude the compound in a short time thereby avoiding the accumulation within the cell to active concentrations [28]. We therefore
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Drug resistance is in most cases a result of over-expression of cellular transporters that are able to extrude the compound in a short time thereby avoiding the accumulation within the cell to active concentrations [>>28<<]. We therefore created and analyzed gene expression profiles of M14 cells in comparison to the highly sensitive cell line MDA-MB-231. Most of the gene expression differences between the two cell lines can be attributed to their different
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Moreover its activity is essential for formation of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) particles in vivo and mutations of ABCA1 lead to Tangier disease, an autosomal recessive trait characterized by HDL deficiency [>>44<<,45]. Low plasma HDL is associated with type 2 diabetes and metabolic syndrome [46,47] suggesting that ABCA1 contributes to this complication. Metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes are strongly correlated with therapy resistance and
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Moreover its activity is essential for formation of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) particles in vivo and mutations of ABCA1 lead to Tangier disease, an autosomal recessive trait characterized by HDL deficiency [44,>>45<<]. Low plasma HDL is associated with type 2 diabetes and metabolic syndrome [46,47] suggesting that ABCA1 contributes to this complication. Metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes are strongly correlated with therapy resistance and
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Low plasma HDL is associated with type 2 diabetes and metabolic syndrome [>>46<<,47] suggesting that ABCA1 contributes to this complication.
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Low plasma HDL is associated with type 2 diabetes and metabolic syndrome [46,>>47<<] suggesting that ABCA1 contributes to this complication.
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Metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes are strongly correlated with therapy resistance and increased cancer risk [>>48<<]. We show here that the ability of Curcumin to induce apoptosis and to act on NFκB is restored by knocking down ABCA1 in treatment resistant M14 melanoma cells. Interestingly, silencing of the ABCA1 transporter alone, in the absence of
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In the majority of primary and metastatic melanomas ABCA1 is highly expressed [>>35<<]. Melanoma is therefore most likely not a good target for Curcumin treatments unless patients are selected on the base of ABCA1 expression.
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It has been used for centuries as a traditional medicine to treat various inflammatory disorders [>>1<<,2] and has revealed remarkable anti-tumor activity in various organs and cell models [3-11]).
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It has been used for centuries as a traditional medicine to treat various inflammatory disorders [1,2] and has revealed remarkable anti-tumor activity in various organs and cell models [>>3<<-11]). offering a role as novel candidate for chemoprevention of cancer.
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In a previous study we have shown that Curcumin significantly reduces the number of metastases formed from intracardially injected breast cancer cells [>>3<<]. The underlying molecular mechanism involves the inhibition of the survival related transcription factor nuclear factor κB (NFκB) and its down-stream targets, the pro-inflammatory cytokines CXCL1 and -2 [4].
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The underlying molecular mechanism involves the inhibition of the survival related transcription factor nuclear factor κB (NFκB) and its down-stream targets, the pro-inflammatory cytokines CXCL1 and -2 [>>4<<]. CXCL1 and -2 are expressed at high levels in very few breast cancers but in many primary and metastatic melanomas (see results section). We therefore addressed the question whether Curcumin could be a possible candidate drug for the
n2:mentions
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The current treatment modalities for melanoma fail to prevent the spread of metastasis in nearly 50% of the patients [>>12<<]. The development of new therapies is therefore required.
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models of melanoma has so far shown promising results, inasmuch as the melanoma cell lines responded well to the polyphenol in terms of diminished NFκB activity, which is associated with reduced proliferation and induction of apotosis [>>13<<,14].
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of melanoma has so far shown promising results, inasmuch as the melanoma cell lines responded well to the polyphenol in terms of diminished NFκB activity, which is associated with reduced proliferation and induction of apotosis [13,>>14<<].
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However, the cell lines used in these studies are less tumorigenic and have a lower metastatic potential than the highly metastatic human M14 melanoma cell line that we use here [>>15<<-17].
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Curcumin acts at least in part through diminished translocation of the transcription factor NFκB [>>18<<] which is constitutively active in many tumor cells. Inhibition of NFκB activity is associated with anti-proliferative effects, as well as with the induction of apoptosis [19,20].
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Inhibition of NFκB activity is associated with anti-proliferative effects, as well as with the induction of apoptosis [>>19<<,20]. Several signal transduction pathways converge on NFκB and its regulators to mediate the transcriptional control of apoptosis and cell-cycle control [21,22]. NFκB is required for prevention of cell death induced by tumor necrosis
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NFκB is required for prevention of cell death induced by tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) and its ability to induce anti-apoptotic genes such as bcl2 and birc5/survivin protects cancer cells from apoptosis [>>23<<,24]. Activation of NFκB constitutes a crucial step in tumor promotion and progression, angiogenesis, inflammation, invasion, and metastasis [25].
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NFκB is required for prevention of cell death induced by tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) and its ability to induce anti-apoptotic genes such as bcl2 and birc5/survivin protects cancer cells from apoptosis [23,>>24<<]. Activation of NFκB constitutes a crucial step in tumor promotion and progression, angiogenesis, inflammation, invasion, and metastasis [25].
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Activation of NFκB constitutes a crucial step in tumor promotion and progression, angiogenesis, inflammation, invasion, and metastasis [>>25<<].
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As a consequence, the polyphenol does not reduce the expression of the metastasis-related pro-inflammatory cytokine CXCL1/GROα [>>26<<], which is known to be a NFκB target [27].
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of multidrug resistance genes, a superfamily of transmembrane proteins that act as ATP hydrolyzing cellular transporters and are able to export a wide variety of natural and synthetic compounds from the cells (for a review see [>>28<<]).
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